Species Identification

Cattle (Bos primigenius) are one of the most widely known domesticated species in the world. Ranging from Holstein to Jersey cattle, our society has raised cows for many reasons, but primarily for production purposes. Let’s look a little at the history of its domestication.

Sources:

http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/cattle.htm

Social History and Domestication

            Along with domestication came the establishment of a more stable lifestyle. Human survival no longer depended on hunting and gathering their food sources, but rather on the domestication of livestock. To this day, cattle of all different species remain one of the top-regarded sources for meat, milk, and even leather. The Taurine was believed to have been domesticated first somewhere within the Fertile Crescent by the Asian peoples (China, Mongolia, and Korea) about 8,000 years ago. But several other incidences of domestication may have occurred in other regions around the world (including Africa and Pakistan). Cattle were strong candidates for domestication due to these specific qualities:

•  Not too flighty- To be able to handle them more easily, civilizations domesticated animals that were less fearful of people. By doing this, they were hoping to lower, if not eliminate, the possibility of injuries while handling the animal.
• Breeds well in captivity- In order to avoid depletion, a big part of animal management was being able to breed for large quantities of offspring. Their food and material supply would be constant.
• Grows at a relatively good pace- Because different lifestyles take different expenditures, individuals looked for a fast growing rate as to avoid putting too much of their costs and efforts in neonate and pubertal nutrition.
• Not aggressive- Once again, this deals greatly with the matter of safety. This allowed them to handle the animals more easily and avoid major injuries.
• Requires a low maintenance diet- The diet is the most expensive (in the long term) expenditure to raising animals and at large quantities, individuals look for animals with low maintenance qualities to avoid the high costs (outweigh their products from the products they make take to be raised).

Despite cattle having these characteristic dispositions, studies on their mitochondrial DNA suggest that domestication of cattle happened, although it was highly unlikely to occur. The most commonly known breed of cattle Taurine is descended from only about 80 females total. In other words, all cattle could be traced back to a small heard of just 80 animals that were domesticated from wild ox. However, because of this domestication and the heights reached, new technology and better research allows us to produce milk, meat, and leather at an even higher production level worldwide.

Taurine Cattle in Asia are descended from about 80 females total
that were originally domesticated from the wild ox.

Sources:

http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/qt/cattle.htm

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/holy-cow/introduction/1812/         

Current Social Perceptions

With new findings, come new responsibilities however. In recent years, epidemic outbreaks of mad cow disease, or Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, has startled the public into questioning what is really happening with cattle and the products they consume as their food. Because the main way in which people interact with cattle is via food, the treatment and care for these animals becomes a large concern. What are they being fed? How are they being treated? And, is genetic research and advancements to blame for these horrific occurrences? Not only are they seen for their meat quality however, but more universally, they are known for their milk quality. Have you ever seen the “Make us part of your family” commercials?

"California Cow Singing Swagger Jagger in the 

Shower- Real Californa Milk Commercial"

Or this commercial…

"Protein Fight Club- Milk V.S. Omelet-

Milk Mustache Campaign"

These are just a few of the many examples in which we relate to cows in our society. Although we have had major setbacks with quality and security of meat, the nutritional standing of milk quality is higher than ever. Campaigns such as the Milk Mustache campaign and Real California Milk continue to promote public health via endorsements for dairy and with raising awareness in our communities for healthy lifestyles, the indirect interaction between cows and humans are becoming much more crucial. But, nonetheless cows are still seen today as a commodity due to what they offer to our food supply as well as material supply. Although the nutritional value of cattle products is important to our society, some groups of individuals such as PETA are involved more directly with these animals via investigations. Currently, their goal appears to be to change social perceptions of cattle from food sources and “stupid” animals to cattle that are, “as diverse as cats, dogs and people: some are bright; others are slow learners; some are adventurous; others are shy and timid; some are friendly and considerate; others are bossy and devious”. As opposed to companion animals however, the current social discernment for cattle of all kinds seems to be primarily centered around what they have to offer on the breakfast table rather than what they can do for us as friends.

Sources:

http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/bse/

http://www.gotmilk.com/

http://www.realcaliforniamilk.com/

Ethology

Research shows they are able to express more emotions
than just primitive ones.

Unfortunately, the practice of cow-tipping is another way in which the society may interact with cattle. But, because of this appeal, and because of their appearance, slow movement, and loud “moos”, the public is quick to assume the essence of a cow as “dumb”. However, studies conducted by John Webster suggest otherwise. According to his studies, he was able to demonstrate emotional complexity of cows through their displays in herds such as social interactions and sexual behavior. For example, some studies revealed that cattle maintain close friendships within their herds as well as deep grudges (secondary emotions) against others. Through another set of observations, Webster was able to perceive homosexual activities between females in a cattle herd when they were in estrus. All of this, and more, is explained in depth in Webster’s, “Animal Welfare: Limping Towards Eden”. More substantially, Webster also ran tests to test a cow’s ability to solve puzzles, and as a result witnessed a cow’s ability to express joy and pleasure (primary emotions). In the video following, these are just some ways in which individuals have witnessed just how intelligent a cow could be:

"The Interesting Inner Lives and High Intelligence of Cows"

Just like the individuals in this video, our society is starting to see past cows’ primary emotions sigh as fear, distress, and flight, to notice the secondary emotions that are evidently present such as happiness, as some may argue is seen in this video:

"Tap Dancing Cow"

These observations and evidence may help in several aspects including in production levels. For example, there were studies done to observe the effect on production levels of dairy cows in “comfortable conditions” and not so comfortable conditions. It was concluded that cows placed in environments with less environmental stressors and more comfortable bedding were more likely to produce more milk at high quality (University of Kentucky- College of Agriculture). However, with further evidence of emotional diversity in cattle becoming present came more demonstrations of speciesism in media, especially within ads and commercials.

Sources:

http://www.grit.com/animals/farm-animal-intelligence.aspx#axzz2flhrhodN

http://thecollegianur.com/2010/09/09/animal-intelligence-what-they-know-and-you-don%E2%80%99t/13120/

http://www.dccwaterbeds.com/2012/06/university-of-kentucky-looks-for-win-win-in-cow-comfort-solutions-good-for-the-cow-and-for-the-farmer/

Speciesism

With growing importance on the issues of animal welfare in farming and even for companion animals, individuals everywhere are starting to realize the trends of speciesism between differing species. With cows, someone could easily argue why there is not same consideration or equal treatment for dairy cows as there is for companion horses. Even more evident, why the process of cauterizing dogs' tails vs cows' tails is so different. Although companion animals such as dogs get anesthesia gas during these surgeries, cows are regularly cauterized by simply using heated scissors and this is done unanesthetized. The same goes for castration techniques between cattle and companion animals. Why is there a considerably larger deliberation for the dog's well-being than the cattle's during these medical procedures? Although it may be argued that it is because of the differences in history and culture between these animals, there still seems to be great debate on whether differing degrees of treatment is justified. Cows may have been used in the past for agricultural purposes as opposed to dogs who were (starting long ago) rose for companion purposes. Even more evident in the world today, whereas there is an estimated 78.2 million owned dogs in the U.S, there may be no cows residing at the foot of people's beds here currently, nonetheless around the world. These aspects may have played a role in our society's differing treatment and views on cows versus say companion animals we keep closer. But some individuals, such as animal activists, may argue otherwise in that they believe equal treatment should be put upon all animals as humans are given no matter the past culture of use and treatment.

Tail docking is a practice used in cattle production to prevent injury
or infection of the tail or udder.

Sources:

http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html

http://awionline.org/pubs/Quarterly/fall02/taildocking.htm

Art

The earliest form of art representing cows and other livestock appeared on rock art motifs. Not surprisingly, these drawings originated around the time of the Mesolithic period sometimes simply regarded as the transitional period between Paleolithic hunting and foraging to the farming, Neolithic period. These drawings of bison and later, cattle, appeared all around the world ranging from Australia to North Africa. These “cave paintings” changed continuously reflecting environmental changes including prey availability within these regions due to extinction or natural inhabitants. As time progressed, more and more rock art motifs represented the introduction of domestic animals, including but not limited to cattle. Being so that the popular subjects of hunters, herdsmen, and breeders during this time period were animals, the depictions found in Africa were teeming of fauna, rivers, lakes, the plains with roaming cattle, and even the Savannah and its inhabitants.

Cows and Horses were some of the major resources obtained via hunting in the Mesolithic period. The "cave paintings" found during this time period reflected cattle and other domestic species being hunted.

This representation of the relation between humans and cattle between 9,000-8000 and 3000 BCE was found in the Laas Gaal (Geel) cave and rock shelters in Somaliland, Africa.

A more modern representation of cows, the "Cow Parade" is the single largest public art event in the world ranging over 50 cities worldwide since 1999. It is estimated that over 100 million people came from around the world to witness the famous cows displayed throughout the host city of choosing, and plenty of local artists from around the world participated in painting and "decorating:, if you will, the plaster cow sculptures that start out blank. However, artists are not limited to painters, but also includes architects, designers like Kate Spade, celebrity artists like Radiohead, and even movie directors like David Lynch. However, people may wonder why the corporation has chosen cattle as an initial medium. The creators chose cows simply because they are "universally loved animals" and represent different things to different people around the world ranging from being a sacred animal to even a source of prosperity. As the creators put it, "She simply makes everyone smile". They also felt that the three shapes offered by the cow (standing, grazing, and reclining) offered "subtle, yet interesting angles and curves" that created unique challenges to the work of art for the artists, hence contributing to the fact that worldwide, no two are alike! 
Not only do they offer a grand site for the public to see, but this particular art exhibition has risen over $20 million for non-profit organizations worldwide via traditional art auctions where these cow sculptures were sold. Some of the buyers are well known individuals such as Oprah Winfrey and Elton John.
Below is the video of the creative process of Sadie Rapp meanwhile designing and creating Sprinkles, one of the many cow exhibits that were displayed. 

"Sprinkles the Krispy Kreme Challenge Cow is Born; NC Cow Parade; Sadie Rapp"

"Penny, The Amazing Coin Converting Cow"- Debbie Martz

"Mookey"- Susan K. Jones, N. Lee Ball

"Owie Cowie"- Robin Teas

Sources:

http://cowparadenc.com/artists/meetcow

http://www.cowparade.com/our-story/

Folklore

"The Story of the Black Cow" is an old Himalayan Tale about a little stepson who was tossed into the wrong hands. Having had a wicked stepmother, this child turned to a single black cow for consoling advice and relief from his current struggles. In response, the cow nurtured and raised him as her own for many years till the day he was taken by a princess to be wed. Although the story's plot is more complex, the basic trend appeared to be the motherly nature of the cow. This tale and others with cattle characters have an underlying tenor in which they appear to parallel the cow species with the maturing of a young character once dependent on them. Even in the more familiar tale of "Jack and the Beanstalk", the cow's milk symbolizes the weaning process, marking the end of Jack's childhood and infancy, hence his "responsible" adventure. And, as the stories continue so did the relation between maturity and the cow species.

These Himalayan cows are being used as a primary means of backpacking
essentials needed for their travels.

From the opposite side of the world comes the well-known Korean folktale of "Lazy, The Cow" in which yet again, the cow is related to the transcending from childhood to adulthood and responsibility. A lazy boy with no respect for his mother or her hard work is met by a man who tricks the boy into turning into a cow. In his years of turmoil and labor as a working cow, he later realizes his disrespect for his mother, and the apparent lackadaisical lifestyle he carried. Once he was morphed back to human, he led an ambitious life, grown up to be a mature man.

The lazy boy is tricked into becoming a cow and forced to work, later
making him appreciate his mother and change his careless lifestyle. 

This analogy may have been brought forth by the mere role of the cow in old societies. Throughout the world, societies as a whole have depended on them to provide them with food, warmth, work power, and prosperity. Being one of the first domesticated species to provide peoples with these novelties may have set forth an association of cows with wisdom, nurturing behavior, and continuance to a more modern and advanced society and lifestyle. In other words, many societies would relate that without the support of the cow species, their societies would fall in health and prosperity. Their role as working animals may have also contributed to this image of cows due to the fact that they were considered "leaders" as they were strapped to carriages and plowing mechanisms. Their strength, stature, and guiding abilities apparent in their work made them a strong candidate for characters responsible for influence, education, and support.

Sources:

http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/cinderella/stories/blackcow.html

http://www.thewhelming.com/2012/12/the-lazy-cow/

http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/jackbeanstalk/notes.html 

MOOvies

It is not often your attention strays from the main plot of the movie, but every so often, the audience of a film may notice the background scenery. There, graze the cows. Often with films intended for an adult audience, the cattle do not make a star debut but hope only to make an appearance. Some of the most recognized films like, "Back to the Future" featured cows as part of their backgrounds fairly often, but instead of being seen as an animal, are seen rather as props. In such humorous films such as Tommy Boy, the characters participate in a commonly known activity known as "cow tipping" in which once again, the cow is a mere prop to facilitate a humorous scene. Unlike family and children's movies, films specifically for the adult audience drive their messages, morals, and themes using human characters that the audience easily connects with. Unlike kids, adults are often in environments in which they are interacting with other adults whether it be in the workplace, on the bus, or even in restaurants. Their social skills being greater than that of a young child also helps to relate to human characters and the predicaments they may have. With life experience as well, it may be easier to connect with the characters by shared frustrations and experiences or similar desires hence lack main characters represented as animals.

"Home On The Range Trailer"

In contrast, children's movies such as "Home on the Range" use anthropomorphized animal characters to drive their message home. Although sometimes they are used simply for their entertainment value, other times they are used to educate children on lessons that could be applied to humans and the humane treatment of animals.  Because children tend to anthropomorphize more on a daily basis and have not developed full social skills, they may relate more to animals because of their pure love for them, compared to the use of human characters. In this particular film," Home on the Range" attempts to demonstrate how to humanely treat animals. Although adults would evaluate such a movie as "unrealistic" or "naive", younger individuals see the protagonist as a dear old lady who treats her cattle and other farm animals as family rather than products, and the antagonist as a cattle rustler who treats animals as mere property. Also, developing these animal characters to have extremely in-depth emotions, thoughts, and motivations, allow the animal characters to become protagonists to the story plot as well, driving yet another message that people are similar to animals and could think just as humans do. 

Nonetheless, there are the few adults that may possibly enjoy new Disney releases more than their children.

The adult of the group has dressed up as the character Nemo, from the pixar movie "Finding Nemo"

Sources:

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0299172/plotsummary

http://www.bovinebazaar.com/mooovies.htm

http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AnthropomorphicShift
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-anthropomorphism.htm
Animals in Film Lecture presented in Human Animal Interactions

Religion

Cattle in India are plentiful, but instead of being confined on farms or
in production facilities, are freely roaming streets.

Although America participates in mass production and slaughter of cows for their meat and dairy products, the adherents to the religion of Hinduism do no such thing. Similarly, they commonly deal with a mass amount of cows on a daily basis, but these cows reside on the streets alongside fellow inhabitants of India rather than a production facility or farm. To millions of Hindu's, the cow is revered as a holy animal that should not, and can not be harmed to necessitate human needs. Since the faith first evolved 3,000 years ago, it is believed that there was some early meat consumption, however progressed to see the cow as a "sacred animal to be esteemed, and not eaten". There are many references in reverence to cows within the religion's major texts and can be traced back to the Lord Krishna which is often referred to as "bala-gopala" or "the child who protects cows". Yet another holy name for Lord Krishna is "Govinda" meaning "one who brings satisfaction to the cows". Several other references are made, but the most notable scripture refers to the cow as the "mother" of all civilization where her milk is the main nurturing factor to our growing populations.

Lord Krishna, as depicted here with a sacred cow, was worshipped as the protector
of cows and the one who brought satisfaction to the cows.

A majority of rural Indian families to this day have at least one dairy cow to supply them with essential products such as milk, curds, ghee butter, and even urine and dung. Although these products are very commonly used as a source of nourishment, cow dung is  commonly used as a major source of natural energy for households throughout India. Collectively, these products are also used in puja (worship) as well as in rites of extreme penance. In addition Gopastami, or the Cow Holiday, is a day where cows are taken to a temple, washed and decorated, and praised. On this day, offerings are made to the cow and celebrations are centered around them. Even the dung of cows on this sacred day is used to draw a line or lines on a man's forehead and a bindi dot on women, and in both forms are referred to as a "tilak". Tilak however, is used in conjunction with many other days such as special weddings or religious rituals. 

This cow is dressed up on the day of Gopastami in bright colors and expensive cloths.
On this day, celebrations are plentiful and surround the cattle.

Within Hinduism, the cow is not only a precious resource, but treated as part of the family. Given great amounts of respect, cattle in India continue their lives unharmed by individuals. In fact, hitting or killing a cow is a sentence of 6 months in jail, which some would agree is heftier than the 5,000 rupees mandatory pay in the instance of killing a person. 

"Sacred Cows in India"

Sources: 

http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/things/cow.htm
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/holycow/hinduism.html
http://boards.straightdope.com/sdmb/showthread.php?p=2523437

http://www.ehow.com/info_8510464_cows-hindu-religion.html
http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/things/tilak.htm

Controversy

Currently, there is a lot of controversy surrounding the production practices involving cattle, whether they are primarily used for meat or dairy. As consumers, the public is concerned of health issues that may transfer over if consuming these increased amounts of growth hormones. With questions like, "Will my  children reach puberty faster if they drink milk daily", the public is concerned not for the cattle, but for their own well-being. Since these concerns were unearthed, many tests were done and science has proved against these misconceptions. However, there still remains circulating concern that hormones like Bovine somatotropin (BST) or bovine growth hormone (BHG) are harmful to the health of the consumers.

There is still growing concern within the public about the effects of
recombinant bovine growth hormone consumption.

Bovine somatotropin and bovine growth hormone are both naturally-occurring hormones within the cow's normal bodily functions. In fact, it is secreted by the pituitary gland of animals, including humans, and helps in aiding normal growth, development, and even health maintenance. Because production has grown to be a larger feat and demand even greater, once it was discovered that injecting cows with growth hormone would increase milk production, it became acceptable and a normal practice. Initially extracted from cattle pituitary glands, after large amounts of research, the hormone became easier to produce in large quantities as well as cheaper and is to this day, utilized frequently within bovine production practices. In response to this rising concern from the public however, the FDA and NIH review panel released a statement that "milk and meat from cows supplemented with rBST is safe for human consumption" and backed their statement with research. 

Posilac is an rGBH supplement that is injected via the buttocks of the cow.

There is currently no data to suggest that these additional hormones, if ingested, can survive the digestive tract's harsh environment. In fact, oral toxicity studies done with rats demonstrated the inability of rbGH to remain active within their oral environments which consequently means it can not be absorbed into their system. However, there is evidence suggesting that even if BST is absorbed intact into the body, the growth hormone receptors present in the human's immune system would fail to recognize cow BST, and therefore would not produce effects in natural hormone balance.

Although research continues, there are certain challenges that arise in evaluating levels of additional hormone  in meat and milk products. Currently, there are no processes available to properly determine the amount of hormone used for treatment remaining in meat and milk products because it is impossible to differentiate between naturally occurring hormones produced by the animal and those previously used to treat the animal. Nonetheless, concern although slightly alleviated for some, still continues within the general public in accordance with hormone treatment in cows.

"Why you don't want rBGH (rBST) in Milk- No More Hormones!"

Even initial to researching the rBGH, I personally felt that hormones in my milk did not have to be a bad thing. FDA regulation in the United States of America is very strong, and ensures public safety. Also from past biology classes, I was aware when this controversy exhumed that it was a naturally-occurring substance in the body that was critical to normal growth, function, and health of the body. Nonetheless, my concern arose directly from the administration of these drugs to cows to increase milk production. Although the product was better for consumers and sufficing their demand, what affects were there on the cow? Although the hormone itself is naturally produced within the body, will the increased milk production effect their hormonal sequences (negative/positive feedback) and disrupt their normal levels? 

(To Be Continued...)

Sources: 

http://listverse.com/2011/12/13/top-10-controversies-surrounding-cattle/

http://scienceblogs.com/aetiology/2012/06/19/growth-hormones-in-milk-mythfact/

http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/factsheet/diet/fs37.hormones.cfm

To Dr. Epstein

Dear Dr. Epstein of the Organic Consumers Association,

It has come to my attention that a good part of your concern for hormone use in dairy cattle production comes from your concern for the cows' well being and health. The statement that “rBST milk is contaminated by pus, due to mastitis, an infection of the udder commonly induced by the hormone, and also by antibiotics used to treat the mastitis” rings true in that several surveys have shown an increase in cases of mastitis in hormone treated cows. One must wonder if the hormones being injected into the cow's body are harmful to the animals themselves, as opposed to the growing concern of the effects they would have on human consumers. Despite research that shows that hormone use in dairy cows is safe for consumers, the environment, and the cows themselves, this apparent association between increased cases of infection and hormone use subsists. There has been data collected to show that the use of rBST increases the risk of udder infections by 25%, and further the risk of lameness by 50% which all together seems to disprove the statement made above.

I am glad to say however that with growing concern from the public for their health, the use of hormone treated cows have decreased. In fact, major providers such as Dean industries have decided to go about this controversy by simply banning hormone-treated milk products. Larger suppliers such as Walmart have stopped buying from suppliers that get their milk products from hormone treated cows and have turned rather to providers of organic milk sources. With this trend, the demand for untreated cows may increase phasing out the use of recombinant hormones altogether. But in the meanwhile, mastitis in cows is being detected and treated at highly effective rates. The California mastitis test is one type of test used to detect mastitis in which a four-well plastic paddle is used to mix milk drawn with test reagent to produce either a negative (mixture unchanged) or positive result (solid gel or particle formation). These tests are conducted routinely in dairy production to ensure that no infected milk is transferred into the human consumer market. Further research is being done to find cost-effective means of treating mastitis cases with a rather natural form of vitamin D (prehormone 25- Hydroxyvitamin D) which will ideally alter the response of the cow's immune system in defense against mastitis infection. With further observation, direct injection of Vitamin D into the infected quarter of the mammary gland resulted in significant reductions in bacterial counts and clinical signs of severe infection.

Although there are other methods out there that are still a work in progress, the humane efforts of cattle production whether for meat or milk have come a long ways. Humane treatment of cows in production has resulted from modern research to provide not only basic care, but also comfort and enrichment within their primary environments. But, nonetheless, behavioral and scientific research continues to this day to always improve the situations in which we keep our domesticated animals.

Sources:

http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_19391.cfm
http://www.stonyfield.com/blog/no-artificial-hormones-and-antibiotics/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_mastitis_test
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BkkQ9TmiM94
http://ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2012/120618.htm

To Farmer Brown

Dear Farmer Brown of the Illinois Farm Bureau,

Despite all the controversy over the use of hormones such as rBGH in dairy production, the benefits to milk production are clear and hard to dispute. In some cases, milk production in cows could increase by 11 percent, and in other cases up to a whopping 40 percent.Regardless, this increase in production translates into profit as more milk is sold or alternatively, less cows need to be owned. This is an extremely effective means of increasing milk yield meanwhile utilizing environmentally friendly techniques. By utilizing such hormones, there would be a decrease in cow ownership leading to decreased manure and other waste produced by cattle. Despite belief, owning 10% more cattle (by eliminating use of rBGH) to produce the same amount of milk being produced today would probably cause more economic hardship as well as troublesome environmental variances.

The increase in milk yield per cow translates into profit as more milk is sold and
 ultimately, less cows are raised.

There are also apparent benefits for consumers of milk products. Studies show that the demand for dairy products is on the rise. The USDA Foreign Agricultural Service reports that for the first half of 2010, exports of cheese were up 48% and exports of butter were up 89%. With the use of hormones such as rBST, the ability for U.S. dairy producers to meet this demand would become more probable, providing the public with means of purchasing milk at a reasonable price and  rate. Even with less cows owned, more milk would be produced. Although normally after the cow calves, milk is produced for about 12 weeks afterwards, the introduction of recombinant hormones into the body can postpone the dry period allowing for another eight to 12 weeks of lactation, and respectively, more milk from each cow. Because milk has always been a great, sustainable source of nutrients to individuals ranging from newborns to elderlies, the demand will stay the same if not increase rapidly with the increase in population size and therefore demand. Because also there would be less costs for the farmers in raising less dairy cattle, economically the prices would stay the same or decrease as demand continued to rise.

As for the health aspect, because this is an already naturally occurring within the body, it seems evidently safe to introduce it into consumers' milk supply. Furthermore, because the hormone cannot remain active within the harsh conditions of the human digestive tract and ultimately cannot be recognized when absorbed into the body, the introduction of these extra hormones into the milk supply would produce no negative effects to a natural hormone balance.

Bet despite the apparent benefits, all farmers still care about the well being of their animals. Recent studies have shown that increased cases of infections such as mastitis are associated with the use of recombinant hormones such as these in dairy cattle. It is said that this is due simply to the overworking of the cow. That increase in lactation period as discussed before could cause potentially life threatening health situations onto the cow. After the cow lactates for the normal 12 weeks after calving, the cow's body is able to recover as it had been diverting nutrients away from maintenance and sourcing towards production. But, with the increased period of lactation, cows are unable to divert energy and nutrients back to maintenance when needed, as is the case when fighting off infection. Because this is the case, there has been an increase in relevancy of mastitis cases as well as other illnesses commonly seen within dairy production. Although there are new methods that are continuously being developed to treat mastitis and other ailments, would the  cost of treating these animals still pale in comparison to the profit being made with the use of rBGH and other hormones like these?

There has been an increase in mastitis cases associated with the use of rBGH
due to the overworking of dairy cattle.
  

Sources

 http://www.ilfb.org/policy-and-issues/current-issues/livestock,-dairy-and-equine/rbst.aspx

http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/safetyhealth/productsafetyinformation/ucm130321.htm

Compromise

Cattle Health

Because the use of additional recombinant hormones has been known to increase cases of infection within the animal, cattle should be supplemented with additional dietary needs and medical attention crucial in the stage of production. Because their energy supply is directed solely towards lactation during these stages of life, their supplemental needs are higher and must be considered when increasing this period of vulnerability for the cow up to 12 weeks.

Despite the use of additional hormones, there are several other drugs that are regularly introduced into the cow's body via injection or ingestion. In some cases the positives outweigh the negatives for both the farmers and cattle, but in other cases such as in the case of using growth hormones within production, could and will end controversially. Because of this, it is important for all animal production facilities to consider the factors in play, one of the most important being animal well-being and health (animal welfare). When considering the growth hormones used, there seems to be a decrease in productivity despite the increase in milk yield per cow because of the increased cases of infection throughout the facility. Even with this aspect, some facilities feel that the prevalence of illness is still less than the noticeable increase in profit. Nonetheless, I am a strong believer that to increase product yield, it is necessary to start with the animal and what it may need. Because infection is not a favorable state for the body, the result is decreased milk yield within a cow that has not truly met its potential since it is exposed to poor body conditions. If the disease and poor quality of life purveys with the use of growth hormones, production facilities as well as animal welfare groups should consider alternative means of increasing milk yield, one alternative being natural remedies.

Natural Means of Increasing Milk Yield

Studies show that cow comfort plays a large role in increasing milk yield in dairy production facilities. With certain stall design changes as well as environmental enrichment opportunities, cows showed an impressive increase in milk yield. A survey was conducted at the University of Vermont where 47 farms in Northeastern Span were observed. It was concluded that a 7.5 kg increase in milk production was due solely to stall availability. This is only one of the many ways in which a cow's comfort could be considered. Other studies demonstrate the importance of providing free stalls to allow for a comfortable, clean, and dry resting area.  Because the requirement of lying may be as high as 14 hours per day, it is crucial to keep these stalls comfortable and clean as to provide the cows with a healthy and safe means of practicing natural behaviors. Some other natural behaviors that may be considered is a cow's need to scratch if they have an itch or cool themselves if they are experiencing heat stress. Many facilities today have inhabited quick enrichment installations to increase the comfort of the cow therefore increasing the productivity and milk yield of the cow naturally via improved husbandry. Equally crucial to consider is the comfort of the cow during differing weather conditions. Because all animals have a lower and upper critical control temperature as well as a specific comfort zone, cows that are exposed to an open house barn may need supplemental means of cooling during the summer time (via water pipelines) and heating during the winter (heat lamps). Cow comfort can play a large role in physiological state due to increased stress levels and inability to fight off infection effectively. Therefore by adapting means of increasing cow comfort, individuals that prefer a more holistic means of caring for their animals as well as animal welfare groups could be sufficed and farmers everywhere would still experience an increase in profit due to increased milk yield.

Pictured here is a scratching post, a type of enrichment utilized to increase cow comfort
in dairy and meat production facilities.

Cost Effective means of Preventing Mastitis

With rising controversy over the increased use of antibiotics in meat and dairy products, it is important to consider at large the natural means of preventing and curing instances of mastitis. Mastitis is considered one of the most costly infectious diseases affecting dairy herds today. There is 12% of direct losses from clinical mastitis, 17% lost milk, 35% excess culling and death, and 36% price reduction of milk products. These are all problems that could be prevented or dealt with, without the use of regularly scrutinized antibiotics and intramammary infusions. Today coliform mastitis control vaccinations are administered regularly to prevent outbreaks of mastitis, but with increased milking and handling, udders are prone to infection and studies show that antibiotics have not reduced the incidence of mastitis overall. Alternatively, preventative measures should be taken in which milking procedures utilized are tweaked and closely monitored to prevent infection by establishing regular udder washing, fore-milking (milking by hand before machine use), milking sequence (infected cows last), complete milking, and even post-milking teat dipping and proper cleaning of equipment. 

Diet is also a crucial part in preventing and even treating cases of mastitis. Because cows are twice as likely to conjure mastitis during their dry periods, their diets must be adjusted to contain high fibrous materials as well as poor hay to provoke rapid drop in milk flow. In the case that the cow is positive for mastitis, culling should be a last resort in that their diets should be considered first. Their diets would contain low concentrates and extra fibers and added laxatives to aid with a necessary purge. Because this is a natural means of treating mastitis, if proper measures are taken during milking and processing, the cow could continue to be milked as opposed to having a withdrawal period with the use of antibiotics. This practice could reduce costs in that less high quality feed would be used during these times, less costly antibiotics would have to be purchased, and crucial milking time would not be lost due to a withdrawal period concluding in increased profit in any case. There are currently other methods out there that are further being researched to provide cows with more effective and aggressive means of handling and fighting off mastitis. This is crucial to dairy production facilities to aid in proper husbandry and practices that provide animal welfare.

Although cows would not be supplemented a tree, a high fiber diet is crucial in aiding
the purge necessary during a cow's dry period to prevent or even cure mastitis.

Sources:

http://eap.mcgill.ca/agrobio/ab370-11e.htm

http://www2.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/asc/asc178/asc178.pdf

http://nmconline.org/articles/comfortSCC.pdf

http://www1.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/dairy/milk-quality-and-mastitis/giving-dry-cow-mastitis-the-boot.pdf

Human-Animal Interactions to Come

No matter the species, animals everywhere deserve the same respect given in
regards to human beings.

Because the ways in which we interact with our animals are increasing everyday, it is extremely crucial to maintain a respect and regard for animals that is parallel to the respect one may have in regard for human beings. This could be interpreted in many ways as demonstrated by the differing views of animal rights groups such as PETA and animal welfare groups such as Humane societies. Although the extreme efforts of PETA are sometimes helpful in aiding the animal community, other times the extremities deter individuals from listening and participating in the movement. Because of this, it is crucial to understand the balance between the interactions of the public and the animal world to understand existing perceptions to create new, better ones.

Perceptions change from nation to nation, neighborhood to neighborhood, and even individual to individual. Because of this it is crucial to impose education onto the public to shape perceptions that will ultimately create positive interactions with animals both directly and indirectly. Although this is important for our companion animals, it is also vital for the animals within production facilities providing human use products such as meats, dairies, and even clothing such as furs. Although these production facilities are far from consumer view, the practices that occur within these buildings are expected to be as humane as possible simultaneously providing for the animal's welfare. Although practices such slaughter and culling for human use enter the gray area in the grand scheme of things, in some cases it is beneficial to consider the reality and necessity of the end production. 

By doing this and outweighing the benefits to the losses, certain age old practices could be eliminated thereby decreasing the amount of infliction on affected animals. One example of this is with the mass producing fur trade from China and other large scale countries. In several current cultures, owning a fur pelt is known to be a symbol of wealth demonstrating one's place in society. Because the purpose of these furs have shifted from a necessity to keep warm when materials were scarce to a desired product no longer essential to human life, it has become a practice that could be considered to be needlessly harming species such as the silver fox and others. Several forms of entertainment could be considered in the same way given that present day show business offers several alternatives to direct animal use in entertainment.

But even with the elimination of certain superfluous and preventable human animal interactions, there are the few necessary practices that have developed further in our modern world today, one of the largest being production facilities for dairy and meat products. Because meat has become an affordable and obtainable means of getting nutrients, meat consumption and therefore production has gone to the next level and demand has been stable, if not increasing. With production facilities, it is important to continually explore alternative means of caring for the animals even during execution (culling and slaughter). More humane methods should always be pursued and practiced within these industries and the considerations of Temple Grandin should continue to be considered.

Without this mutual respect for animals, animals ranging from wildlife to our very own companion animals would face a world of danger ahead. Without routine utilization of humane practices, the gap between good perceptions and bad perceptions would soon be too blurred. This is the case for pit bull perceptions currently. Although individuals are aware of these animals, it is hard to say that the society has a positive outlook on the specific breed. Because individuals have neglected practicing humane treatment on these animals, media outlets and the public have fed off of these discrepancies to soon identify these animals as "killer dogs". Because it is extremely difficult to effectively change existing perceptions, these incongruities could take decades of education to reverse, thereby restoring the integrity and image of pit bulls and pit bull type dogs. This is not an isolated incident and therefore could occur again with different species or even general practices and interactions with animals. Although media sometimes aids in spreading wrongful information to the public, this information could be plenty to change an entire population's perceptions. 

Education is Crucial- Final Reflection

There were several aspects of human-animal interactions that I had not considered prior to this course. Despite belief, there are numerous ways in which people interact with animals and in some cases they may be less apparent due to the indirect discretion of these practices. Because of this, I was blind to considering medical research utilizing certain animal species, as a mode of human-animal interaction. Although I was aware of the several positive human-animal interactions, I was uneducated in the possible negative human-animal interactions that exist as problems within our modern world today. But, because the rest of the public is naive to these aspects of our interactions as I once was, I believe education to be a crucial facet in informing our society properly today and changing existing perceptions. Offering opportunities for education to the public will allow for more informed decisions as well as knowledgeable stances on controversial topics.

Although individual perspective is extremely important, it is also important to gradually combine our positions to create opposition or support for certain circumstantial conditions such as in the case of controversial topics. Educated debates would ultimately aid in solving many of the issues we have in the animal world today. Because our society has grown to heavily depend on animals in our everyday lives, it is crucial to maintain respect and animal welfare within heavily animal-influenced communities and practices such as meat production or even clothing material production. To educate the public on these crucial matters would decrease animal neglect and cruelty and consequently increase the humane treatment of animals making it an even more widely accepted norm. This would make a large impact in animal entertainment forms such as the extremely controversial topic of animal use in circuses. Because much research has gone into demonstrating the intelligence of animals such as elephants and tigers, their abilities to feel emotions would make a large impact on communities of peoples everywhere and growing opposition may eventually eliminate the use of animals for this purpose. 

Just as this course did for me, individuals everywhere would be exposed to truthful yet informative material that could assist them in their future stances and decisions. The human-animal interactions that occur today, or will occur in the future, will bring both rewards for positive interaction such as unbreakable bonds of companionship and love, and heavier consequences for negative interactions such as the unjust and unruly treatment of animals that are unfortunately seen today in every aspect of our world.

"Animal Connections- Humane Education"

Sources: 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpXqDEGjwYg